Class of Antibiotics

YOD

YOR

Resistance Mechanisms

Examples

Ref.

β-lactams

1928

1945

Cleavage by β-lactamases, altered penicillin-binding proteins

Penicillin, Cephalosporin

[6,7]

Aminoglycosides

1943

1946

Enzymatic modification, efflux pump

Streptomycin

[8,9]

Tetracyclines

1944

1950

Mainly efflux pumps

Tigecycline

[10,11]

Quinolones

1961

1968

Efflux pumps, target modifications

Ciprofloxacin

[12,13]

Lipopeptides

1986

1987

Modification of the cell wall and cell membrane permeability

Daptomycin

[14,15]

Glycopeptides

1953

1960

Efflux pumps, altered cell wall permeability

Vancomycin

[16,17]

Phenicols

1946

1950

Reduced membrane permeability, mutation in the ribosomal subunit

Chloramphenicol

[18,19]